Interpreting Lab, Medical & Clinical Tests

Lab Tests Online UK
Produced by the Association for Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine in collaboration with the AACC

Lab Tests Online-UK is written by practising laboratory doctors and scientists to help you understand the many clinical laboratory tests that are used in diagnosis, monitoring and treatment of disease.

• Source: labtestsonline.org.uk
• Clinical Resource: Database
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American Association for Clinical Chemistry Practice Guidelines

• Source: aacc.org
• Clinical Resource: Guidelines
• Register to Access Content: No

The Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia Manual

The main purpose of this Manual is to provide useful guidelines for the selection of pathology tests and to facilitate interpretation of results.

The Manual consists of several sections:

• Clinical Problems
• Pathology Tests
• Pathology Decision Support Tools

• Source: rcpamanual.edu.au
• Clinical Resource: Manual
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ClinLab Navigator
Test Interpretations

ClinLabNavigator provides a comprehensive resource for healthcare professionals with more than 700 laboratory test interpretations, test utilization guidelines and transfusion guidelines.

• The basic physiology underlying each test is described along with an explanation of how the pathology of a disease affects laboratory values
• Each test includes a detailed interpretation section that facilitates diagnosis
• Relevant supportive statistics are included for each test
• Reference ranges are included for quantitative tests, often in a useful table format

• Source: clinlabnavigator.com
• Clinical Resource: Database
• Register to Access Content: Yes – registration is FREE

Biochemical Investigations in Laboratory Medicine
J H Barth, G E Butler & P J Hammond,

Complex clinical problems usually require a spectrum of laboratory investigations initially to aid disease diagnosis and subsequently to monitor disease and treatment. This book has been designed to help choose the most appropriate tests for different clinical scenarios. These are approached with algorithms which should be used only as an guide for investigation as patients are individuals who do not take kindly to following rigid flow-charts.

Decision points on these algorithms are based on both clinical observations as well as laboratory tests. Some decisions require complex biochemical tests often requiring administration of inhibitory or stimulatory agents. These are described in protocols along with interpretative advice. Some protocols have absolute values for decision making which are based on assay methods employed by the laboratories at the Leeds Hospitals and can only be used as guidance for users of other laboratories.

• Source: pathology.leedsth.nhs.uk
• Clinical Resource: Book
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London Laboratory Services Group
Laboratory Test Information Guide

• Browse all tests
• Browse tests by laboratory
• Search for tests by using full or partial test name

• Source: lhsc.on.ca
• Clinical Resource: Guide
• Register to Access Content: No

BestBETs
Laboratory

BETs were developed in the Emergency Department of Manchester Royal Infirmary, UK, to provide rapid evidence-based answers to real-life clinical questions, using a systematic approach to reviewing the literature. BETs take into account the shortcomings of much current evidence, allowing physicians to make the best of what there is.

• Source: bestbets.org
• Clinical Resource: Evidence Based Answers to Clinical Questions
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Clinical Information and Support

Some of the most visited pages on our website relate to clinical information and interpretation of tests. Example of such popular pages are:-

• Urea and Electrolytes
• Thyroid Function tests
• Therapeutic Drug Monitoring
• Bone biochemistry/Rheumatology
• Thrombophilia
• Full Blood Count Interpretation
• Autoimmune disease
• Monitoring Inflammation: PV, ESR or CRP

• Source: pathology.leedsth.nhs.uk
• Clinical Resource: Various
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The Urbana Atlas of Pathology
University of Illinois College of Medicine at Urbana-Champaign

Table of Contents

Volume 1 – Overview of General Pathology
Volume 2 – Cardiovascular Pathology
Volume 3 – Endocrine Pathology
Volume 4 – Pulmonary Pathology
Volume 5- Renal Pathology

• Source: med.illinois.edu
• Clinical Resource: Atlas
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Frequently Encoutered Interferences in Selected Analytes

The table below, though by no means exhaustive, represents some of the common interferences encountered in tests requested in the department. Drug effects may be biological or analytical. In the former, a real in vivo change in the analyte occurs, not usually directly related to the therapeutic effect of the drug.

• Source: pathlabs.rlbuht.nhs.uk
• Clinical Resource: Table
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Table for conversions of chemical compounds (such as HDL, LDL, triglyceride, angiotensin, apolipoprotein, C-peptide, glucose and many more) from conventional units to SI units and vice versa

Find below a chemical conversion table containing chemical compounds with factors for conversion from conventional to SI units as well as a calculator for conversions of all listed chemicals and substances.

• Source: soc-bdr.org
• Clinical Resource: Calculator
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Biochemical tests in pregnancy

Pregnancy is a normal physiological phenomenon with many biochemical changes ranging from alterations in electrolyte concentrations to more complex changes in cortisol and calcium metabolism. The results of biochemical tests during pregnancy may therefore differ from the normal reference ranges so they may be mistakenly interpreted as abnormal.

• Source: nps.org.au
• Clinical Resource: Journal Article
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Biochemical tests for abnormalities in pregnancy

Pregnancy induces major physiological, hormonal and biochemical changes to achieve an optimal outcome for the baby and its mother. When the pregnancy deviates from its normal course, there are many biochemical markers which can be used to assess these abnormalities.

• Source: nps.org.au
• Clinical Resource: Journal Article
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The interpretation of arterial blood gases

Arterial blood gas analysis is used to measure the pH and the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in arterial blood. The investigation is relatively easy to perform and yields information that can guide the management of acute and chronic illnesses.

• Source: nps.org.au
• Clinical Resource: Journal Article
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Interpretation of Arterial Blood Gases (ABGs)

Interpreting an arterial blood gas (ABG) is a crucial skill for physicians, nurses, respiratory therapists, and other health care personnel. ABG interpretation is especially important in critically ill patients.

The following six-step process helps ensure a complete interpretation of every ABG. In addition, you will find tables that list commonly encountered acid-base disorders.

• Source: thoracic.org
• Clinical Resource: Discussion
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American College of Gastroenterology Guideline: Evaluation of Abnormal Liver Chemistries

• Source: gi.org
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
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European Association for the Study of the Liver Clinical Practice Guidelines: Non-Invasive Tests for Evaluation of Liver Disease Severity and Prognosis

• Source: easl.eu
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
• Register to Access Content: No

Liver Test Interpretation – Approach to the Patient with Liver Disease: A Guide to Commonly Used Liver Tests

This chapter is intended to discuss a useful way of thinking about liver tests. It emphasizes limitations of and alternative explanations for isolated abnormalities of common liver test results. It also provides information on the initial screening test to be chosen, their interpretation, and the tests needed to confirm the diagnosis of common liver disorders based on current recommendations.

• Source: clevelandclinicmeded.com
• Clinical Resource: Medical Reference
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Special Considerations in Interpreting Liver Function Tests

A number of pitfalls can be encountered in the interpretation of common blood liver function tests. These tests can be normal in patients with chronic hepatitis or cirrhosis.

• Source: aafp.org
• Clinical Resource: Journal Article
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Liver function tests

Liver function tests (LFTs) are a panel of blood markers used to assess and monitor several diseases. However, they are not all true tests of liver function and abnormalities may not reflect liver disease.

• Source: racgp.org.au
• Clinical Resource: Journal Article
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Guidelines for the Management of Adults with Asymptomatic Liver Function Abnormalities

This guideline relates to adults with only vague or no symptoms or signs of liver disease, found to have abnormal LFTs.

• Source: northoftyneapc.nhs.uk
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
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American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases Position Paper on Liver Biopsy

• Source: aasld.org
• Clinical Resource: Position Paper
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Guidelines on the use of Liver Biopsy in Clinical Practice

These revised guidelines were drawn up for the British Society of Gastroenterology and the British Association for the Study of the Liver by Professor James Neuberger, Dr Allister Grant, Professor Chris Day and Dr Sushma Saxseena. Within the boundaries of current literature we have attempted where possible to make the guidelines “evidence based”.

• Source: bsg.org.uk
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
• Register to Access Content: No

American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy Practice Guidelines

• Source: asge.org
• Clinical Resource: Guidelines
• Register to Access Content: No

Biomarkers in Nephrology: Core Curriculum 2013

• Source: ajkd.org
• Clinical Resource: Journal Article
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Creatinine-False Elevations

A: Interestingly, the only elevated laboratory value was the (SCr). Generally, when renal dysfunction is suspected, other lab values (BUN for example) are also increased. In this situation, it is reasonable to consider that some factor has resulted in a falsely elevated creatinine concentration.

• Source: duq.edu
• Clinical Resource: Pharmaceutical Information Centre Publication
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A primary care approach to sodium and potassium imbalance

Interpreting and managing a laboratory result of abnormal sodium or potassium levels is a common scenario in general practice. Electrolyte imbalances are more common in older people and in people with co-morbidities. The immediate cause of the imbalance is usually clinically apparent, e.g. fluid overload or depletion. In many cases medicines are implicated as a contributing cause. Indications for urgent referral to secondary care are detailed, and potential causes of the imbalance are discussed.

• Source: bpac.org.nz
• Clinical Resource: Article
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Hyponatraemia

There are three main pathophysiological causes of hyponatraemia. Hypovolaemic hyponatraemia is characterised by clinical and biochemical evidence of dehydration and is best treated by intravenous sodium chloride solution. Hypervolaemic hyponatraemia presents with fluid overload, which usually requires diuretic therapy. Euvolaemic hyponatraemia, of which the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion is an example, is traditionally treated with fluid restriction, although the new vasopressin antagonists, the vaptans, show great potential for future therapy.

• Source: rcpe.ac.uk
• Clinical Resource: Journal Article
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Disorders of sodium balance

Here, we describe the common causes of disorders of plasma sodium, offer guides to their investigation and management, and highlight areas of recent advance and of uncertainty.

• Source: europepmc.org
• Clinical Resource: Journal Article
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Hyponatremia and Hypernatremia in the Elderly

Management of abnormalities in water homeostasis is frequently challenging. Because age-related changes and chronic diseases are often associated with impairment of water metabolism in elderly patients, it is absolutely essential for clinicians to be aware of the pathophysiology of hyponatremia and hypernatremia in the elderly.

• Source: aafp.org
• Clinical Resource: Journal Article
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Management of hyperkalaemia

Hyperkalaemia, an elevated extracellular fluid potassium concentration, is a common electrolyte disorder and is present in 1–10% of hospitalised patients. Elevated serum potassium concentrations are usually asymptomatic but may be associated with electrocardiogram (ECG) changes. Hyperkalaemia occasionally leads to life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias. Prompt recognition of this disorder, patient risk management and administration of appropriate treatment can prevent serious cardiac complications of hyperkalaemia.

• Source: rcpe.ac.uk
• Clinical Resource: Journal Article
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Medication-Induced Hypokalemia: A Common Problem

This issue of Elder Care will review the most common hypokalemia-causing drugs. These and other medications are listed in Table 2. In addition to medication, hypokalemia can also be caused by the ingestion of large quantities of caffeine or licorice.

• Source: aging.arizona.edu
• Clinical Resource: Factsheet
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Society for Endocrinology Emergency Endocrine Guidance: Emergency management of acute hypocalcaemia in adult patients

Guidance during the initial phase of assessment and management of acute hypocalcaemia in adult patients.

• Source: endocrinology.org
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
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Society for Endocrinology Emergency Endocrine Guidance: Emergency management of acute hypercalcaemia in adult patients

Guidance during the initial phase of assessment and management of acute hypercalcaemia in adult patients.

• Source: endocrinology.org
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
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Endocrinology Handbook

Imperial Centre for Endocrinology, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Charing Cross, Hammersmith and St. Mary’s Hospitals

Diagnosis and appropriate treatment in clinical endocrinology rely heavily on the accurate use and interpretation of diagnostic tests. This handbook was devised as a means of guiding new junior staff (and refreshing the memories of their seniors!) when confronted by clinical problems and their investigation. This bible is meant to be brief and didactic with the inevitable costs as well as benefits of such an approach.

• Source: imperialendo.co.uk
• Clinical Resource: Handbook
• Register to Access Content: No

Endocrine Testing Protocols

1. Endocrine Testing Protocols: Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis
2. Growth hormone Stimulation Tests in Assessing Adult Growth Hormone Deficiency
3. Hypopituitarism
4. Acromegaly
5. Endocrine testing for the Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion (SIADH)
6. Diagnostic Testing for Diabetes Insipidus
7. Assay of Thyroid Hormones and Related Substances

• Source: endotext.org
• Clinical Resource: Protocols
• Register to Access Content: Yes – registration is FREE

Association of British Clinical Diabetologists position statement on haemoglobin A1c for the diagnosis of diabetes

• Source: abcd.care
• Clinical Resource: Position Paper
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American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists/American College of Endocrinology Statement on the Use of Hemoglobin A1c for the Diagnosis of Diabetes

• Source: aace.com
• Clinical Resource: Position Statement
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Reporting and interpreting glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) results/values

When performed for diagnosis/CV risk screening
When performed in those with confirmed diabetes

• Source: nzssd.nz
• Clinical Resource: Tables
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HbA1c converter

Convert HbA1c % to mmol/mol and vice versa

• Source: diabetes.org.uk
• Clinical Resource: Converter
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Conversion of Glucose Values from mg/dl to mmol/l

• Source: soc-bdr.org
• Clinical Resource: Calculator
• Register to Access Content: No

estimated Average Glucose, eAG Conversion Calculator

ADA is recommending the use of a new term in diabetes management, estimated average glucose, or eAG. Health care providers can now report A1C results to patients using the same units (mg/dl or mmol/l) that patients see routinely in blood glucose measurements.

• Source: professional.diabetes.org
• Clinical Resource: Calculator
• Register to Access Content: No

Guideline on Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose in Non-Insulin Treated Type 2 Diabetes

In October 2008, the International Diabetes Federation Clinical Guidelines Task Force, in conjunction with the SMBG International Working Group, convened a workshop in Amsterdam to address the issue of SMBG utilization in people with type 2 diabetes (T2M) that is not treated with insulin.

• Source: idf.org
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
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The Tayside Diabetes Handbook > The Role of the Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)

An OGTT need only be considered to establish a diagnosis of diabetes if blood glucose values fall into an equivocal range (e.g. FPG >6.0

• Source: diabetes-healthnet.ac.uk
• Clinical Resource: Handbook
• Register to Access Content: No

UK Guidelines for the Use of Thyroid Function Tests

The Use of Thyroid Function Tests Guidelines Development Group was formed in 2002 under the auspices of the Association for Clinical Biochemistry (ACB), the British Thyroid Association (BTA) and the British Thyroid Foundation (BTF).

• Source: british-thyroid-association.org
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
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Adapted Summary of UK Guidelines for the Use of Thyroid Function Tests

Contents

Indications for thyroid function testing
Hypothyroidism
Hyperthyroidism

• Source: pathlabs.rlbuht.nhs.uk
• Clinical Resource: Summary
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The Diagnosis of Cushing’s Syndrome: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline

• Source: endocrine.org
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
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Reproductive hormones: The right test, at the right time, for the right patient

Understanding the physiology of reproductive hormones, recognising pathology and knowing what tests to order, when to order them and how to interpret the results can be daunting. Hormone tests provide important information when applied appropriately, but often they are used without a clearly thought out diagnostic pathway, or in response to patient demand, rather than being tailored to the right patient in the right situation. In such situations, hormone tests will, at best, be of no clinical use, and at worst, lead to anxiety and uncertainty. We look at some of the more common applications of hormone tests in the general practice setting.

• Source: bpac.org.nz
• Clinical Resource: Article
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Fourth Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction
European Society of Cardiology Clinical Practice Guidelines

• Source: escardio.org
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
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Cardiac Enzymes and Markers for Myocardial Infarction

Cardiac biomarkers should be measured in all patients who present with chest discomfort consistent with acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Elevations of cardiac enzyme levels should be interpreted in the context of clinical and ECG findings.

• Source: patient.co.uk
• Clinical Resource: Article
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Cardiac Markers

Cardiac markers are used in the diagnosis and risk stratification of patients with chest pain and suspected acute coronary syndrome (ACS). The cardiac troponins, in particular, have become the cardiac markers of choice for patients with ACS. Indeed, cardiac troponin is central to the definition of acute myocardial infarction (MI) in the consensus guidelines from the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the American College of Cardiology (ACC)

• Source: medscape.com
• Clinical Resource: Article
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The role of troponin testing in primary care

Introduction | Other causes of raised troponin level | Troponin has no role in ‘screening’ for CVD | Laboratory versus point-of-care troponin testing | What are troponins? | References

• Source: bpac.org.nz
• Clinical Resource: Article
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Electrocardiogram (ECG / EKG) Library

An electrocardiogram (ECG / EKG) is an electrical recording of the heart and is used in the investigation of heart disease. This library is a collection of realistic looking recordings which will help improve your ECG skills.

• Source: ecglibrary.com
• Clinical Resource: Recordings
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British Society for Haematology Guideline: Measurement of non-Coumarin anticoagulants and their effects on tests of Haemostasis

An electrocardiogram (ECG / EKG) is an electrical recording of the heart and is used in the investigation of heart disease. This library is a collection of realistic looking recordings which will help improve your ECG skills.

• Source: b-s-h.org.uk.com
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
• Register to Access Content: No

Endoscopy in patients on antiplatelet or
anticoagulant therapy, including direct oral anticoagulants: British Society of Gastroenterology and European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy guidelines

• Source: bsg.org.uk
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
• Register to Access Content: No

A Stepwise Approach to the Interpretation of Pulmonary Function Tests

Pulmonary function tests (PFTs) are useful for diagnosing the cause of unexplained respiratory symptoms and monitoring patients with known respiratory disease.

• Source: aafp.org
• Clinical Resource: Journal Article
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The Mantoux Test

Administration, reading and interpretation

• Source: webarchive.org.uk
• Clinical Resource: Factsheet
• Register to Access Content: No

Spirometry: The Measurement and Interpretation of Ventilatory Function in Clinical Practice
Rob Pierce and David P. Johns

This handbook was written as a guide for those involved in the performance and interpretation of spirometry in clinical practice, i.e. medical practitioners and assisting nursing staff, and as an introduction to the topic for scientists and technicians. It is not intended to be an exhaustive review but rather a guide aiming to help improve the knowledge and techniques of those already doing and interpreting spirometry, and to introduce spirometry to those learning how to do it for the first time. The important facts about types of spirometers, how the test is actually performed and interpreted, and some common pitfalls and problems are covered in the main text.

• Source: nationalasthma.org.au
• Clinical Resource: Handbook
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A Guide to Performing Quality Assured Diagnostic Spirometry

This step by step guide shows how high quality diagnostic spirometry can be delivered in primary care and elsewhere. It provides a clear outline covering operator competency, calibration and cleaning, preparation of the patient, operation of the equipment, interpretation of results and quality assurance.

• Source: pcc-cic.org.uk
• Clinical Resource: Guide
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An Approach to Interpreting Spirometry

A great deal of information can be obtained from a spirometry test; however, the results must be correlated carefully with clinical and roentgenographic data for optimal clinical application. This article reviews the indications for use of spirometry, provides a stepwise approach to its interpretation, and indicates when additional tests are warranted.

• Source: aafp.org
• Clinical Resource: Journal Article
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Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease Spirometry Guide

A comprehensive guide to the use of spirometry in clinical practice, including an overview of information provided by spirometry, when to perform this test, interpretation of spirogram results, and troubleshooting.

• Source: goldcopd.org
• Clinical Resource: Guide
• Register to Access Content: No

SpirXpert

This open-access website aims at promoting the understanding of respiratory physiology and pathophysiology, with emphasis on the measurement and interpretation of spirometric test results.

• Source: spirxpert.ers-education.org
• Clinical Resource: Various
• Register to Access Content: No

Spirometry

Spirometry is the gold standard for the diagnosis, assessment and monitoring of COPD, and may assist the diagnosis of asthma. It can also contribute to the diagnosis of other causes of dyspnoea.

• Source: theipcrg.org
• Clinical Resource: Opinion Sheet
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Asthma & Lung Fuction Tests
An information paper for health professionals

This information paper provides an up-to-date summary of lung function testing for asthma, including practical advice on how to perform spirometry accurately and effectively, and when peak flow should be considered.

• Source: nationalasthma.org.au
• Clinical Resource: Information Paper
• Register to Access Content: No

British HIV Association guidelines for the routine investigation and monitoring of adult HIV-1-positive individuals 2016

• Source: bhiva.org
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
• Register to Access Content: No

British Association for Sexual Health and HIV / Expert Advisory Group on AIDS statement on HIV window period

• Source: bashh.org
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
• Register to Access Content: No

Information for Interpretation of Viral Diagnostic Tests

• Source: nebraskamed.com
• Clinical Resource: Tables
• Register to Access Content: No

Interpretation of Hepatitis B Serologic Test Results

This one page tool describes the four most common tests used in hepatitis B serologic testing and provides guidance to interpret different patterns of test results.

• Source: cdc.gov
• Clinical Resource: Chart
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Recommendations for Routine Testing and Follow-up for Chronic Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) Infection

This two-page table summarizes the CDC’s recommendations for testing for chronic hepatitis B including specific populations and a map of endemic countries.

• Source: cdc.gov
• Clinical Resource: Table
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Interpretation of Results of Tests for Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Infection and Further Actions

This one page table outlines interpretation of initial test results to determine whether or not a patient needs additional testing and clinical evaluation.

• Source: cdc.gov
• Clinical Resource: Table
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Recommended Testing Sequence for Identifying Current Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Infection

This one page flow chart outlines the serologic testing process beginning with anti HCV testing.

• Source: cdc.gov
• Clinical Resource: Flowchart
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Canadian Urological Association recommendations on prostate
cancer screening and early diagnosis

• Source: cua.org
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
• Register to Access Content: No

Urinary tract infection: diagnosis guide for primary care
Public Health England

• Source: gov.uk
• Clinical Resource: Guide
• Register to Access Content: No

Complete Blood Count in Primary Care

• Summary: Complete Blood Count in Primary care
• Making sense of blood films
• Drug Induced Agranulocytosis

• Source: bpac.org.nz
• Clinical Resource: Article
• Register to Access Content: No

British Society for Haematology Guideline on the Investigation and Management of Antiphospholipid Syndrome

• Source: b-s-h.org.uk
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
• Register to Access Content: No

British Society for Haematology Guideline for the Laboratory Investigation of Heritable Disorders of Platelet Function

• Source: b-s-h.org.uk
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
• Register to Access Content: No

British Society for Haematology Guideline
Significant Haemoglobinopathies: Guidelines for Screening and Diagnosis

• Source: b-s-h.org.uk
• Clinical Resource: Guideline
• Register to Access Content: No

Allergy Diagnostic Testing: An Updated Practice Parameter

The American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology (AAAAI)and the American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology (ACAAI) have jointly accepted responsibility for establishing the Allergy Diagnostic Testing: An Updated Practice Parameter.

• Source: aaaai.org
• Clinical Resource: Practice Parameter
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Skin prick testing for the diagnosis of allergic disease

This manual has been prepared by a working party of ASCIA and has been endorsed by the ASCIA Council. It is intended for medical and allied health practitioners and it outlines the application, method and interpretation of allergy skin tests.

• Source: allergy.org.au
• Clinical Resource: Manual
• Register to Access Content: No

Toxicology Screening: A Review

Toxicology screening is a tool frequently used in the initial evaluation of poisoned patients. It is also commonly used in the community setting by employers and in courtmandated drug testing programs.

• Source: utah.edu
• Clinical Resource: Poison Control Center Newsletter
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What common substances can cause false positives on urine screens for drugs of abuse?

• Source: mdedge.com
• Clinical Resource: Evidence Based Answer to Clinical Question
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What drugs are likely to interfere with urine drug screens?

False-positive reports on urine drug screens by immunoassay are rare (strength of recommendation [SOR]: C, small controlled-exposure studies, small case series). Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, fluoroquinolones, and Vicks Inhaler are most frequently implicated.

• Source: uic.edu
• Clinical Resource: Frequently Asked Question
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